Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids in Water Systems: A Review of the Issues, Conventional, and Remote Sensing Techniques

This study provides a comprehensive review of the efforts utilized in measurement water quality parameters (WQPs) with focus on total dissolved solids (TDS) and suspended (TSS). The current method used TDS TSS includes conventional field gravimetric approaches. These methods are limited due to associated cost labor, spatial coverages. Remote Sensing (RS) applications have, however, been over past few decades as an alternative overcome these limitations. Although they also present underlying atmospheric interferences images, radiometric spectral resolution issues. Studies WQPs RS, therefore, require knowledge utilization best mechanisms. use RS for retrieval TDS, TSS, their forms has explored many studies using images from airborne sensors onboard unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) satellite such those Landsat, Sentinel-2, Aqua, Terra platforms. properties serve inputs deep learning analysis statistical, machine models. Methods retrieve WQP measurements dependent optical inland bodies. While is optically active parameter, inactive low signal–noise ratio. detection visible, near-infrared, infrared bands some process that (usually) co-occurs changes affecting active. revealed significant improvements incorporating approaches estimating WQPs. findings reveal improved spatiotemporal potential effectively detect For effective monitoring we recommend employing correction mechanisms reduce image interference, exploration fusion microwave bands, high-resolution hyperspectral ML models, calibration validation observed data measured methods. Further could development new technology UAVs produce real-time situ TSS. presented this aid consolidating understanding advancement single repository thereby offering stakeholders, researchers, decision-makers, regulatory bodies go-to information resource enhance mitigation impairments.